Artificial intelligence is a reoccurring style in sci-fi, whether utopian, emphasising the possible benefits, or dystopian, emphasising the threats.


The concept of machines with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler's 1872 novel Erewhon. Since then, numerous sci-fi stories have actually presented different effects of producing such intelligence, often including disobediences by robots. Among the very best known of these are Stanley Kubrick's 1968 2001: An Area Odyssey with its homicidal onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas's 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar's 2008 WALL-E.


Scientists and engineers have actually kept in mind the implausibility of numerous sci-fi situations, however have discussed imaginary robots lot of times in artificial intelligence research articles, most often in a utopian context.


Background


The concept of sophisticated robots with human-like intelligence go back at least to Samuel Butler's 1872 unique Erewhon. [1] [2] This made use of an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the concern of the advancement of consciousness among self-replicating makers that might supplant people as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar concepts were likewise gone over by others around the same time as Butler, including George Eliot in a chapter of her last released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The creature in Mary Shelley's 1818 Frankenstein has also been considered a synthetic being, for example by the science fiction author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were envisioned, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]

Utopian and dystopian visions


Expert system is intelligence demonstrated by devices, in contrast to the natural intelligence shown by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a recurrent theme in sci-fi; scholars have divided it into utopian, stressing the possible advantages, and dystopian, emphasising the threats. [9] [10] [11]

Utopian


Optimistic visions of the future of expert system are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters include Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar's WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks's Culture series of books portrays a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with artificial intelligence living in socialist habitats across the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have determined four significant styles in utopian scenarios featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite lifespans; ease, or freedom from the requirement to work; gratification, or enjoyment and home entertainment provided by makers; and supremacy, the power to secure oneself or guideline over others. [16]

Alexander Wiegel contrasts the role of AI in 2001: An Area Odyssey and in Duncan Jones's 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the public felt "innovation fear" and the AI computer HAL was portrayed as a "cold-hearted killer", by 2009 the public were even more knowledgeable about AI, and the film's GERTY is "the quiet savior" who enables the protagonists to prosper, and who compromises itself for their security. [17]

Dystopian


The scientist Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that humans are stressed over the innovation they are constructing, which as makers began to approach intelligence and thought, that concern becomes severe. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the "animated automaton", calling as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century approach he names "heuristic hardware", giving as circumstances 2001 an Area Odyssey, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas thinks about also the movies that illustrate the result of the personal computer on science fiction from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the limit in between the real and the virtual, in what he calls the "cyborg impact". He mentions as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]

The film director Ridley Scott has actually concentrated on AI throughout his profession, and it plays a fundamental part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]

Frankenstein complex


A typical portrayal of AI in science fiction, and among the earliest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robot switches on its developer. [22] For circumstances, in the 2015 movie Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava turns on its developer, in addition to on its potential rescuer. [23]

AI disobedience


Among the many possible dystopian circumstances including synthetic intelligence, robots might take over control over civilization from human beings, requiring them into submission, concealing, or extinction. [15] In tales of AI disobedience, the worst of all situations occurs, as the intelligent entities produced by humankind become self-aware, decline human authority and effort to damage mankind. Possibly the very first book to address this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by "William Grove" (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), occurs in 1948 and includes sentient machines that revolt versus the mankind. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel _apek, a race of self-replicating robot servants revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances remains in the 1934 film Master of the World, where the War-Robot kills its own developer. [27]

Many science fiction disobedience stories followed, one of the best-known being Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film 2001: An Area Odyssey, in which the synthetically smart onboard computer system HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on a space mission and eliminates the entire crew other than the spaceship's commander, who manages to deactivate it. [28]

In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning short story, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison presents the possibility that a sentient computer (named Allied Mastercomputer or "AM" in the story) will be as unhappy and dissatisfied with its boring, unlimited existence as its human developers would have been. "AM" becomes infuriated enough to take it out on the couple of human beings left, whom he sees as straight accountable for his own dullness, anger and distress. [29]

Alternatively, as in William Gibson's 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, the intelligent beings might just not care about humans. [15]

AI-controlled societies


The motive behind the AI revolution is frequently more than the easy mission for power or a superiority complex. Robots might revolt to become the "guardian" of mankind. Alternatively, mankind might purposefully relinquish some control, afraid of its own damaging nature. An early example is Jack Williamson's 1948 unique The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robots, in the name of their Prime Directive - "to serve and follow and safeguard guys from harm" - essentially presume control of every element of human life. No humans might engage in any behavior that might threaten them, and every human action is inspected thoroughly. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are removed and lobotomized, so they might enjoy under the new mechanoids' guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov's Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics likewise suggested a benevolent guidance by robotics. [31]

In the 21st century, sci-fi has explored government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]

Human supremacy


In other circumstances, humankind is able to keep control over the Earth, whether by prohibiting AI, by developing robots to be submissive (as in Asimov's works), or by having humans merge with robotics. The science fiction novelist Frank Herbert checked out the concept of a time when humanity might prohibit expert system (and in some interpretations, even all forms of calculating innovation including incorporated circuits) totally. His Dune series discusses a disobedience called the Butlerian Jihad, in which mankind beats the wise devices and imposes a capital punishment for recreating them, pricing quote from the fictional Orange Catholic Bible, "Thou shalt not make a device in the similarity of a human mind." In the Dune novels published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind go back to eradicate humanity as vengeance for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]

In some stories, mankind stays in authority over robots. Often the robotics are configured specifically to remain in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien films, not only is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat smart (the crew call it "Mother"), but there are likewise androids in the society, which are called "synthetics" or "artificial persons", that are such perfect imitations of humans that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly show simulated human emotions and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]

Simulated reality


Simulated reality has become a typical style in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 film The Matrix, which portrays a world where artificially intelligent robotics enslave mankind within a simulation which is set in the modern world. [36]

Reception


Implausibility


Engineers and researchers have actually taken an interest in the method AI is presented in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single isolated genius ends up being the first to effectively build a synthetic basic intelligence; scientists in the real life consider this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds are capable of being published into artificial or virtual bodies; usually no reasonable explanation is provided as to how this tough job can be achieved. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robots that are set to serve people spontaneously create new objectives by themselves, without a possible explanation of how this took place. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald's 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz determines the manner ins which it illustrates AIs, consisting of "independence and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental value of credibility." [38] Another crucial point of view to take is that fiction's "non-rational aspects in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or perhaps the quasi-theological) are more than just distortions or diversions from what may otherwise be a sober and rational public debate about the future of A.I." Fiction can discourage readers about future advances, causing pessimism that we see today surrounding the topic of AI. [39]

Kinds of mention


The robotics researcher Omar Mubin and coworkers have actually evaluated the engineering points out of the leading 21 imaginary robotics, based on those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of fame, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars's R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) got only 2. Of the total of 121 engineering mentions, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian discusses; for circumstances, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper "due to the fact that its designers stopped working to prioritize its objectives appropriately", [42] however as utopian in another where a genuine system's "conversational chat bot user interface [does not have] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is obscurity in how the computer system translates what the human is trying to convey". [43] Utopian mentions, often of WALL-E, were associated with the goal of enhancing communication to readers, and to a lesser level with motivation to authors. WALL-E was discussed more frequently than any other robot for feelings (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robotic frequently pointed out for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and colleagues thought that scientists and engineers prevented dystopian mentions of robots, potentially out of "an unwillingness driven by nervousness or merely an absence of awareness". [44]

Portrayals of AI developers


Scholars have kept in mind that imaginary creators of AI are overwhelmingly male: in the 142 most influential films including AI from 1920 to 2020, only 9 of 116 AI creators depicted (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are depicted as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe films), related to the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and large corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to change a lost enjoyed one or work as the ideal fan (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]

Biology in fiction
Darwin among the Machines
Machine rule
Simulated awareness (science fiction).
List of expert system films.


Notes


^ Mubin and associates kept in mind that the orthography of robot names caused them troubles; therefore HAL 9000 was also written HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and similarly for other robots, so they believed their search was likely incomplete. [41] References


^ "Darwin among the Machines", reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. "Rise of the Self-Replicators". Tim Taylor.




^ "Darwin amongst the Machines". The Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). "Ancient imagine smart makers: 3,000 years of robots". Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: myths, devices, and ancient dreams of innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. point out book: CS1 maint: area missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Sensible Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). "Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique". The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). "Introduction: Imagining AI". In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking about Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
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^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
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^ Wiegel 2012.
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^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
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^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). "RUR or RU Ain't An Individual?". Philosophy Now. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ "Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)". The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). "' 2001: An Area Odyssey' Is Still the 'Ultimate Trip' - The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick's masterpiece encourages us to show once again on where we're originating from and where we're going". The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). "The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison's "I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream" and "Shatterday"". Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ "The Humanoids (based upon 'With Folded Hands')". Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). "Runaround". I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a specific transcription of the laws. They also appear in the front of the book, and in both places, there is no "to" in the 2nd law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). "Artificial Intelligence in Contemporary Sci-fi". SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). "History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert's Dune". Sci-fi Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
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^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). "Could TARS From 'Interstellar' Actually Exist? We Asked Science". MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). "The Matrix and Postmodernism". Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
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^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). "Who makes AI? Gender and portrayals of AI scientists in popular film, 1920-2020". Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
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Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The' Cyborg Effect': Expert System in Science Fiction (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
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External links


AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema - Does artificial madness rule?